Table 1 Consequences of bilingualism for linguistic and non-linguistic cognitive control
From: Consequences of multilingualism for neural architecture
| Â | Type | Region | Effect | Task | Study |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACC | Functional | ACC | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for switch than non-switch for mono only) | Non-verbal task switching | Garbin et al. [47] |
ACC | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for competitor than control, mono only) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [45] | ||
ACC | Mono > bi (activation associated with conflict effect) | Flanker | Abutalebi et al. [46] | ||
ACC | Mono > bi (activation associated with conflict effect) | Stroop | Waldie et al. [69] | ||
Structural | ACC | Mono ≠ bi (− correlation: gray matter/conflict effect, bi only) | Flanker | Abutalebi et al. [46] | |
|  | ACC | Bi > mono (gray matter) | Flanker | ||
|  | ACC | Multilingual controls > interpreters (gray matter); controls ≠ interpreters (− correlation: gray matter/interpreting hours; interpreters only) |  | Elmer et al. [87] | |
Frontal cortex/gyrus | Functional | L IFG | Mono ≠ bi (overlapping activation across tasks, bi only) | Linguistic/non-linguistic flanker; semantic categorization | Coderre et al. [64] |
L IFG | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for switch than non-switch, bi only) | Non-verbal task switching | Garbin et al. [47] | ||
R IFG | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for switch than non-switch, mono only) | Non-verbal task switching | Garbin et al. [47] | ||
SFG | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for competitor than control, mono only) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [45] | ||
SFG, MFG, IFG | Mono > bi (activation associated with conflict effect) | Stroop | Waldie et al. [69] | ||
R SFG/R MFG | Between > within-language (activation associated with conflict effect) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [67] | ||
R SFG/R MFG/R IFG | Dominant > non-dominant language competition (activation associated with conflict effect) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [67] | ||
Structural | DLPFC | Mono ≠ bi (− correlation: gray matter/conflict effect, mono only) | Flanker | ||
SFG | Bi > mono (gray matter) | Language switching | Zou et al. [40] | ||
MFG, IFG, R SFG | Bi > mono (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | ||
IFG | Multilingual controls > interpreters (gray matter); controls ≠ interpreters (− correlation: gray matter/interpreting hours; interpreters only) |  | Elmer et al. [87] | ||
Temporal cortex/gyrus | Functional | MTG, STS | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for competitor than control, mono only) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [45] |
Structural | R MTG, R ITG, | Mono > bi (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | |
R STG, L MTG | Bi > mono (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | ||
L ITG | Bi > mono (gray matter) | Language switching | Zou et al. [40] | ||
Parietal cortex/gyrus | Functional | L IPL | Mono ≠ bi (greater activation for switch than non-switch for mono only) | Non-verbal task switching | Garbin et al. [47] |
Structural | R IPL | Bi > mono (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | |
L SMG | Multilingual controls > interpreters (gray matter) |  | Elmer et al. [87] | ||
Occipital cortex/gyrus | Functional |  | Bi > mono (EEG complexity); mono ≠ bi (− correlation: complexity/conflict effect, bi only) | Non-verbal task switching | |
Structural | L SOG, L IOG | Bi > mono (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | |
Subcortical | Functional | L CN | Bi > mono (activation associated with conflict effect) | Stroop | Waldie et al. [69] |
L CN | Bi only: more LCN activation when language switching than when not | Language switching | Zou et al. [40] | ||
L CN/L putamen | Bi only: between > within-language (activation associated with conflict effect) | Visual world (phonological competition) | Marian et al. [67] | ||
Structural | L CN | Bi > mono (gray matter) | Language switching | Zou et al. [40] | |
L CN | More > less multilingual experience (gray matter) |  | Hervais-Adelman et al. [76] | ||
Striatum | Mono ≠ bi (+ correlation: gray matter/faster switching, bi only) | Non-verbal task switching | Garbin et al. [47] | ||
CN | Controls ≠ interpreters (− correlation: gray matter/interpreting hours; interpreters only) |  | Elmer et al. [87] | ||
L CN/Hip/Amg | Less > more immersion (gray matter contraction) |  | Deluca et al. [85] | ||
L Cb | More > less immersion (gray matter) |  | Deluca et al. [85] | ||
Cb | Mono > bi (gray matter) |  | Olulade et al. [75] (experiment 1) | ||
Multiple/other | Functional | ACC, PFC, striatum | Bi ≠ mono (− correlation: ACC/PFC and striatum for monos; + correlation: ACC/PFC and striatum for bis) | Rapid instructed task learning | Becker et al. [48] |
e.g., ACC, PFC, CN, putamen | Bi > mono (overlapping activation across tasks) | Verbal/non-verbal switching | Anderson et al. [63] | ||
|  | Bi > mono (overlapping activation across tasks) | Verbal/non-verbal task switching | Timmer et al. [65] | ||
|  | Bi < mono (amplitude of N2 in Stroop), mono > bi (amplitude of P3 in Simon), bi ≠ mono (longer delay in P3 latency in Eriksen in monos) | Stroop, Simon, and Eriksen tasks | Kousaie and Phillips [51] | ||
|  | Bi < mono (NInc positivity post-target onset) Bi > mono (NInc negativity pre-target onset) | Stroop | Coderre and van Heuven [61] | ||
|  | Bi < mono (N400 conflict effect for Stroop) | Stroop/negative priming | Heidlmayr et al. [62] | ||
|  | Bi > mono (CRN and ERN negativity) | LANT | Kałamała et al. [50] | ||
|  | More > less interpreting experience (N1/N2 amplitude); less > more interpreting experience (P3 amplitude for incongruent trials only) | Flanker | Dong and Zhong [49] | ||
|  | Bi > mono (N2 on NoGo) | Go/NoGo | Fernandez et al. [57] | ||
|  | Bi > mono (N2 and late positivity wave on NoGo) | Go/NoGo | Moreno et al. [58] | ||
|  | Bi > mono (N2 and P3 to AY) | AX-CPT | Morales et al. [52] | ||
DMN, FPC | Bi > mono (resting-state connectivity within and between networks) |  | Grady et al. [71] | ||
Frontal, occipital, parietal regions | Bi > mono (frontal-occipitopartietal resting-state connectivity) Bi < mono (frontal resting-state connectivity) |  | Luk et al. [70] | ||
Structural | SLF, IFOF | Bi > mono (white matter) |  | Luk et al. [70] | |
ILF/IFOF, fornix, CC | Mono > bi (white matter) |  | Gold et al. [99] |