Table 3 Consequences of bilingualism for language learning
From: Consequences of multilingualism for neural architecture
| Â | Type | Region | Effect | Task | Study |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACC | Functional | ACC/SMA | Mono > bi (activation) | L2 word learning | Bradley et al. [165] |
Structural | ACC | + Correlation: gray matter/L2 vocabulary size (non-training) | English vocabulary test | Hosoda et al. [77] | |
Frontal cortex/gyrus | Functional | R DLPFC | Mono > bi (activation) | L2 word learning | Bradley et al. [165] |
Structural | IFG | + Correlation: gray & white matter/L2 vocabulary size (non-training & training) training > control (gray & white matter) | English vocabulary test | Hosoda et al. [77] | |
Frontal lobe | Bi > mono (white matter) |  | Olsen et al. [180] | ||
L IFG | Bi only: + correlation: gray matter/improvement of L2 proficiency | L2 proficiency | Stein et al. [185] | ||
IFG; L MFG | Interpreters > control (CT change from T1 to T2) | L2 proficiency | Mårtensson et al. [139] | ||
Temporal cortex/gyrus | Structural | STG/R MTG | + Correlation: gray matter/L2 vocabulary size (non-training) | English vocabulary test | Hosoda et al. [77] |
L temporal lobule | Bi > mono (gray matter); mono ≠ bi (− correlation: bilingualism/effects of aging) | Picture naming | Abutalebi et al. [181] | ||
Temporal pole | Mono ≠ bi (− correlation: cortical thickness/aging; mono only) |  | Olsen et al. [180] | ||
Temporal lobe | Bi > mono (white matter) |  | Olsen et al. [180] | ||
STG | Interpreters > control (CT change from T1 to T2) | L2 proficiency | Mårtensson et al. [139] | ||
Parietal cortex/gyrus | Functional | L IPL | Bi only: + correlation gray matter/linguistic competence & cognitive control | ANT, language competence test | Della Rosa et al. [178] |
Structural | IPL | Bi > mono (gray matter); mono ≠ bi (− correlation: RIPL gray matter/age, mono only); higher > lower proficiency (LIPL gray matter); greater > less exposure (RIPL gray matter) | Vocabulary/linguistic background measures | ||
pSMG | Multi > bi (gray matter density) | Lexical decision | Grogan et al. [177] | ||
pSMG | Bi > mono (gray matter); bi only: (+ correlation: gray matter/L2 proficiency) | L2 proficiency | Mechelli et al. [170] | ||
Subcortical | Functional | Putamen | Bi ≠ mono (bi right putamen, mono both) | Proficiency tests | Cherodath et al. [166] |
Putamen | Bi > mono (activation) | L2 word learning | Bradley et al. [165] | ||
L CN | Mono > bi (activation) | L2 word learning | Bradley et al. [165] | ||
Structural | CN | + Correlation: gray matter/L2 vocabulary size (non-training) | English vocabulary test | Hosoda et al. [77] | |
Putamen, thalamas, globus pallidus | Bi > mono (expansion), correlation between immersion L2 and structure, not proficiency, in sequential bilinguals | Proficiency test | Pliatsikas et al. [86] | ||
Multiple/other | Functional |  | Bi ≠ mono (bis showed native-like EEG responses at low proficiency of artificial language when monos did not, bis better RT and accuracy, reached proficiency sooner than monos) | Learning Brocanto2 language | Grey et al. [164] |
Structural | Frontal/temporal/parietal and occipital/temporal/parietal | Bi > mono (write matter connectivity in sub-networks) |  | GarcÃa-Pentón et al. [182] | |
L IFOF, AC-OL | Simultaneous bi > mono & sequential bi (white matter; IFOF) Simultaneous bi < mono (white mater, AC-OL) |  | Mohades et al. [92] | ||
R IFG/caudate | + Correlation: white matter connectivity/L2 vocabulary size (non-training and training) training > control | English vocabulary test | Hosoda et al. [77] | ||
L IFOF | Simultaneous bi > monolinguals (white matter) |  | Mohades et al. [93] | ||
R IFOF, anterior thalamic radiation | Mono > bi (white matter) | Reading test | Cummine and Boliek [98] | ||
Hippocampus | Interpreters > control (volume change from T1 to T2) | L2 proficiency | Mårtensson et al. [139] |